Criminal Courts in the United States

Criminal courts in the United States are judicial bodies tasked with handling cases involving violations of criminal law. They determine whether an individual accused of crimes committed offenses defined by statute and, if guilty, impose penalties such as imprisonment, fines, probation, or community supervision.

Criminal courts in the U.S. operate with dual judicial systems (federal and state), with trial courts, intermediate appellate courts, and supreme courts handling fact-finding, legal rulings, and appellate review, respectively.

Criminal courts differ from civil courts in that criminal cases are brought by the government and require proof beyond a reasonable doubt. Penalties in the criminal court include loss of liberty. Meanwhile, civil courts resolve disputes between private parties, use a lower proof standard (preponderance of the evidence), and typically award monetary relief or injunctions.

Structure of the U.S. Criminal Court System

Whether in the federal or state judicial system, each criminal court has its procedures and types of cases it handles. Regardless of specific court processes, criminal courts are generally structured to ensure due process for accused parties while protecting public safety.

Federal vs. State Jurisdiction

The criminal court system in the United States exists at both federal and state levels, each responsible for enforcing different sets of laws. However, federal criminal courts are part of the U.S. district court system, and they hear cases involving violations of federal statutes, including:

• Drug trafficking across state lines
• Tax evasion
• Immigration offenses
• Terrorism
• Crimes committed on federal property

On the other hand, in accordance with laws enacted by state legislatures, state criminal courts handle most criminal cases, such as:

• Theft
• Assault
• Robbery
• Domestic violence
• Homicide

Note that jurisdiction over a particular criminal case depends on the nature of the crime and where the offense was committed.

Trial and Appellate Levels

At both the state and federal levels, the court system is structured into trial and appellate courts. Trial courts, usually called district courts at the federal level or circuit or superior courts at the state level, are where criminal cases begin. These courts oversee pre-trial motions, arraignments, jury selection, trials, and sentencing.

If a party believes a legal error occurred during the trial, they may appeal to an appellate court. These courts do not retry the case but only review the lower court's records to determine if the law was applied correctly. At the highest level is a state supreme court or the U.S. Supreme Court, which reviews a few high-impact or constitutional cases.

Specialized Criminal Courts

To address specific offender needs and reduce recidivism, many jurisdictions have created specialized courts, also known as problem-solving courts. These courts emphasize treatment, supervision, and accountability, with the goal of helping individuals stabilize their lives and avoid future involvement with the criminal justice system.

Specialized courts include the following:

• Drug Courts: Focus on rehabilitation for non-violent offenders with substance abuse issues.
• Mental Health Courts: Address crimes linked to mental illness, connecting individuals with treatment services.
• Veterans' Courts: Designed for former service members facing criminal charges tied to trauma, addiction, or mental health issues.

Types of Criminal Cases Heard

Criminal offenses in the U.S. are generally classified into infractions, misdemeanors, and felonies, based on their seriousness and corresponding penalties.

• Infractions: These are minor violations, punishable primarily by fines and no jail time. Examples include many traffic violations, such as traffic tickets or local ordinance breaches.
• Misdemeanors: Misdemeanors are mid-level crimes carrying potential jail sentences of up to one year, fines, community service, probation, or a combination. Examples include petty theft, simple assault, vandalism, and first-time DUI.
• Felonies: These are the most serious types of offenses and are punishable by more than one year in prison, long-term probation, heavy fines, and capital punishment in serious cases. Robbery, rape, homicide, aggravated assault, and drug trafficking are examples of felonies.

The most common types of cases heard in the criminal court include the following:

• DUI: Charges related to operating a vehicle while impaired by alcohol or drugs.
• Domestic violence: Cases involving assault, threats, or harassment between family members or intimate partners.
• Theft and Property Crimes: These offenses include shoplifting, burglary, robbery, and embezzlement. Punishments depend on the value of the property stolen and whether violence or force was involved.
• Assault and Battery: These arecrimes involving physical harm or the threat of harm to another person, ranging from simple assault to aggravated assault with a weapon.
• Homicide: The unlawful killing of another person, including degrees of murder and manslaughter, representing the most severe category of criminal prosecution.
• White-collar crimes: Nonviolent offenses motivated by financial gain, such as fraud, insider trading, identity theft, and money laundering.

Criminal Court Procedures

A case proceeds in the criminal court in the following way:

• Arrest and Arraignment: A suspect is taken into custody and brought before a judge to hear formal charges and enter a plea of guilty, not guilty, or no contest.
• Preliminary Hearings and Grand Jury Indictments: A judge or grand jury assesses whether there is probable cause to proceed to trial, particularly for felony charges.
• Plea Bargains, Trials, Verdicts, and Sentencing: Many cases are resolved through plea deals. If not, the case proceeds to trial, where guilt is determined and, if applicable, a sentence is imposed.

Moreover, defendants are afforded the following core rights during criminal case proceedings:

• Miranda Rights: The right to remain silent and to an attorney during police questioning.
• Right to Counsel: Guaranteed legal representation, even if the defendant cannot afford it.
• Presumption of Innocence: Every defendant is considered innocent until proven guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.

Criminal Court Dockets and Records

Criminal court dockets are the official chronological logs summarizing every action in a criminal case, from charging documents through hearings, filings, orders, and final disposition. However, court records are the fuller case file that contains the docket sheet and the actual documents filed or generated by the court in criminal court cases.

What Criminal Court Records Include

Criminal court records typically contain:

• Case numbers and identifiers
• Charges filed against the defendant
• Court filings such as complaints, motions, and briefs
• Trial transcripts, rulings, and jury verdicts
• Sentencing details, including incarceration terms, probation, or fines

Note that trial-level records focus on procedural events and evidentiary matters, while appellate-level records include briefs, transcripts, and opinions reviewing whether legal errors occurred during the trial.

Public vs. Sealed Records

Many criminal records are public and may be requested through open records laws like the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) for federal cases or state-level equivalents. However, some records are restricted for confidentiality purposes, while others may be sealed in accordance with a court order. Such records include the following:

• Juvenile proceedings
• Ongoing investigations
• Expunged or pardoned convictions
• Cases sealed by court order

Additionally, courts apply redaction rules to remove personal identifiers such as Social Security numbers, addresses, or names of victims and minors to protect privacy and comply with legal standards.

How to Access Criminal Court Records

Accessing criminal court records in the U.S. can be done through both online and offline methods, depending on the court's level (whether federal or state), the nature of the case, and the specific jurisdiction.

Online Access

• PACER: The Public Access to Court Electronic Records (PACER) system allows users to view case dockets, filings, and court decisions from U.S. district courts, courts of appeals, and the U.S. Supreme Court. However, registration is required, and a small per-page fee ($0.10 per page) applies.
• State Judiciary Portals: Many states maintain official online portals where users can search criminal records by name, case number, or court location. Be aware that availability and functionality vary by state and county.
• Third-Party Platforms: Websites such as the Court Case Finder (CCF) portal offer searchable criminal record databases. CCF provides access to records from multiple jurisdictions in one single searchable database.

Offline Retrieval

• Clerk of Court's Office: Individuals can visit the courthouse in person to view files, obtain uncertified copies, or request certified copies. Visiting the clerk of court's office is often the most reliable way to access older and certified records.
• Required Documents: Most courts require a completed request form, a valid photo ID, and payment of a fee, especially if certified copies are needed.
• Mail-In Requests: Many courts accept requests by mail. Such requests must include all required documentation and fees. Note that processing times range from a few days to several weeks, depending on certification and whether records must be retrieved from archives.

FAQs About Criminal Courts

The following are frequently asked questions about criminal courts in the United States.