Understanding Federal District Courts in the United States

The United States federal court system is established upon a three-tiered structure based on Article III of the U.S. Constitution. This structure comprises the U.S. Supreme Court at the top, the U.S. Courts of Appeals in the middle, and the U.S. District Courts at the base. While the Supreme Court hears only a small portion of cases in the federal judicial system, the district courts are where most federal legal actions are initiated.

Federal district courts in the United States serve as the primary trial courts in the federal judicial system. These courts are authorized to handle civil and criminal cases falling under federal jurisdiction, including

• Disputes involving federal statutes,
• Constitutional questions,
• Civil rights,
• Interstate matters,
• Federal crimes, and
• Lawsuits involving the U.S. government.

With 94 judicial districts spread across all 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories, these courts form the backbone of the federal judicial process.

What Are Federal District Courts?

Federal district courts serve as the trial courts of the United States, holding original jurisdiction over most federal cases and acting as the entry point for litigation in the federal system. They conduct trials and hearings, determine facts, apply the law, and have the authority to hear nearly all types of federal civil and criminal cases. Each district court operates independently and is staffed by federal judges along with magistrate judges who handle certain preliminary or specialized matters.

"Original Jurisdiction" and Limited Jurisdiction

Pursuant to Section 3231 of the United States Constitution, federal district courts are the courts authorized to be the first to hear federal criminal prosecutions and federal civil disputes. Examples of cases that fall under the original jurisdiction of federal district courts include the following:

• Criminal prosecutions for violations of federal statutes.
• Civil actions "arising under" the Constitution, federal laws, or treaties.
• Civil suits between citizens of different states where the amount in controversy exceeds a statutory threshold.
• Admiralty and maritime cases.
• Bankruptcy proceedings and adversary matters.
• Specialized claims such as patent infringement and federal tax disputes.

Unlike state trial courts, which possess general jurisdiction to decide nearly all criminal issues and civil disputes, federal district courts are not courts of general jurisdiction. Instead, they have limited jurisdiction, meaning that they can only hear cases specifically authorized by the U.S. Constitution or federal statutes enacted by Congress.

The limited jurisdiction of federal district courts is a major difference between federal and state courts. It ensures that the federal district courts do not encroach on areas traditionally governed by state law, such as most contract, family, and probate matters, except in limited situations.

Number and Distribution of Federal District Courts

The federal district courts in the United States are distributed to ensure that every region of the country, including U.S. territories, has access to federal justice. These courts are strategically located to serve the population and enforce federal law across the nation.

Structure and Personnel

For the efficient delivery of justice, each federal district court in the United States comprises the following personnel:

Article III District Judges

Article III judges are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate to lifetime appointments, subject only to removal by impeachment. They preside over the full array of federal cases, civil and criminal, and manage the heaviest caseloads in their districts, handling everything from discovery disputes to final judgments.

Article I Territorial Court Judges

In the U.S. territories of Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, district courts are staffed by Article I judges. These judges are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate for fixed 10-year terms. They exercise the same trial-level authority as Article III judges but without lifetime tenure.

Magistrate Judges

Magistrate judges are selected by the district judges and serve renewable terms, typically 8 years for full-time and 4 years for part-time positions. Their duties include overseeing initial proceedings in criminal cases, managing pretrial motions, conducting settlement conferences, and handling misdemeanor trials. By handling these tasks, they help Article III judges manage heavy dockets and streamline case processing.

Note that for the judicial process to run smoothly and efficiently, district court judges and magistrate judges rely on a professional team of court staff, including the following:

• Clerk of Court
• Chief Deputy Clerk
• Court Reporters
• Judicial Law Clerks
• Courtroom Deputies
• Probation Officers
• Pretrial Services Officers
• IT and Security Staff
• Interpreters

Types of Cases Heard

Federal district courts hear a broad but defined set of matters, including both civil and criminal matters, along with specialized categories such as maritime law and equitable remedies.

Civil Cases

Civil cases in the federal district courts arise when plaintiffs invoke federal question jurisdiction or diversity of citizenship with an amount in controversy above the statutory threshold. Examples include:

• Section 1983 civil-rights actions.
• Title VII employment discrimination claims.
• Diversity suits between citizens of different states over $75,000.
• Antitrust and consumer-protection litigation.

Criminal Cases

District courts prosecute violations of federal law, serving as the first forum for crimes defined by Congress. Typical examples are:

• Drug trafficking and controlled-substances offenses.
• Mail and wire fraud prosecutions.
• Firearms and weapons charges.
• Tax evasion and financial-fraud cases.

Admiralty and Maritime Cases

Admiralty (or maritime) jurisdiction refers to legal cases involving navigable waters and maritime activities. U.S. District Courts have exclusive jurisdiction over many of these disputes. Examples include:

• Cargo-damage and salvage claims.
• Vessel collisions and charter disputes.
• Jones Act injury suits by merchant-marine personnel.
• Marine pollution enforcement actions.

Equity Cases

Federal courts may also decide equity cases, which seek non-monetary remedies such as injunctions or declaratory judgments rather than financial compensation. Examples include:

• A request for a temporary restraining order (TRO) to block enforcement of an allegedly unconstitutional state law.
• A petition for an injunction to stop a company from infringing on a patent.
• A lawsuit seeking a declaratory judgment that a federal agency's regulation is invalid.

Specialized Federal Matters

Federal district courts also handle various specialized subject matters, including the following:

• Bankruptcy appeals and adversary proceedings under the Bankruptcy Code.
• Intellectual property disputes over patents and copyrights.
• Civil actions challenging federal agency actions under the Administrative Procedure Act.
• Securities-law enforcement and regulatory compliance cases.

How to Find U.S. District Court Case Records

Most records of the U.S. District Courts are public records and can be accessed through official federal court portals, in-person visits, and third-party public record aggregators.

Public Access to Court Electronic Records (PACER)

PACER is the official online system for viewing federal court records, including U.S. District Court records. To access court records via this portal, users must create an account. After, they can search case records by party name, case number, or court. The PACER portal offers real-time, up-to-date records from all 94 U.S. District Courts.

Court Clerk's Office

Visiting the clerk's office at the courthouse where the case was filed allows in-person access to case files. This option can save on PACER fees for voluminous records, though hours of operation and security procedures vary by courthouse. Also, certified court records are only accessible by this method.

At the clerk's counter, you can:

• Request to view physical or electronic case files at public terminals.
• Order certified copies of documents for an additional per-page fee.
• Speak directly with courthouse staff about special access or redactions.

Court Case Finder

CourtCaseFinder compiles publicly available court records from various jurisdictions and is another option that requesters can use to access records of the U.S. District Courts.

The features of the Court Case Finder portal include:

• Advanced search filters by jurisdiction, filing date, party, or document type
• Unlimited document downloads under subscription plans
• Alerts for updates in tracked cases

CCF offers an easier interface for users and allows broad searches across multiple states and courts.

Frequently Asked Questions About District Courts

The following are frequently asked questions about district courts in the United States.