Federal Courts in the United States

The federal court system in the United States is the branch of the judiciary responsible for interpreting and applying federal laws and resolving disputes under the U.S. Constitution. Also, unlike state courts focused on handling matters governed by state law, federal courts handle cases involving federal statutes, treaties, or parties from different states, thereby ensuring that the supremacy of federal law is preserved.

The foundation of the federal judiciary is outlined under Article III of the U.S. Constitution, which establishes the Supreme Court and allows Congress to create lower federal courts. Consequently, this structure allows the United States to maintain a balanced legal framework by separating powers between federal and state jurisdictions.

Understanding federal courts, their structure, jurisdiction, and how to access records of these courts is important to citizens, attorneys, researchers, and the public. This knowledge helps them to protect constitutional rights, navigate jurisdiction rules, and analyze legal trends or government accountability.

Structure of the Federal Court System

The federal court system is organized into three main levels: the U.S. Supreme Court, the U.S. Courts of Appeals (Circuit Courts), and the U.S. District Courts.

U.S. Supreme Court

The U.S. Supreme Court is the highest court in the nation. It serves as the final authority on constitutional matters and federal legal interpretation. The court has discretionary appellate jurisdiction, meaning it chooses which cases to hear, often those related to significant constitutional questions, conflicts among lower courts, or disputes between states.

The U.S. Supreme Court comprises nine justices: one chief justice and eight associate justices, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The decisions of the court are binding on all lower courts and carry nationwide impact.

U.S. Courts of Appeals (Circuit Courts)

The U.S. Courts of Appeals operate below the Supreme Court as an intermediate appellate forum, sitting between the trial courts and the U.S. Supreme Court. The U.S. Courts of Appeals is divided into 12 regional circuits and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has nationwide jurisdiction over specific subject areas like patent and international trade.

Each regional circuit reviews final decisions of U.S. District Courts within its geographic area and orders from federal administrative agencies. No trials are held in these courts. Panels of three judges typically hear appeals and publish opinions that create circuit precedent. However, en banc review by a larger panel is available for particularly significant or conflicting cases.

Notable circuits include the Ninth Circuit, covering the western states, and the D.C. Circuit, which often hears cases involving federal agencies and national policy.

U.S. District Courts

There are 94 U.S. District Courts in the federal court system. These courts are the general trial courts of the federal system. They have original jurisdiction in most federal cases, handling a wide range of civil matters and federal criminal cases. Examples of the type of cases handled by these district courts include matters relating to civil rights, immigration, environmental regulation, drug trafficking, and white-collar crimes.

The federal court system also includes specialized units, such as magistrate judges handling preliminary and procedural matters, and separate bankruptcy courts that resolve insolvency proceedings within each district.

Jurisdiction and Case Types

The federal court system handles a wide variety of legal matters through its jurisdiction over civil, criminal, and specialized cases.

Civil Jurisdiction

Federal courts have civil jurisdiction over cases involving violations of federal law, disputes between citizens of different states where the amount in controversy exceeds $75,000 (diversity of citizenship), and claims arising under the U.S. Constitution.

Common examples of cases under the civil jurisdiction of federal courts include those relating to:

• Lawsuits alleging constitutional violations (such as First or Fourteenth Amendment rights) and employment discrimination under federal law
• Complex intellectual property disputes involving patents or copyrights
• Cases involving federal agencies or contractors

Criminal Jurisdiction

Federal criminal jurisdiction covers offenses defined by federal statute, including:

• Drug trafficking
• Public corruption
• Tax evasion
• Wire/mail fraud
• Money laundering
• Cybercrimes
• Terrorism
• Immigration
• Crimes occurring on federal property or involving interstate commerce

Prosecutions in the criminal jurisdiction of federal courts are led by U.S. Attorneys (typically within the Department of Justice), who serve as the chief federal prosecutors in each judicial district and represent the United States in criminal cases.

Before many felony charges are filed, a federal grand jury may be convened to review evidence and determine whether probable cause exists to indict the defendant. Federal criminal cases often involve agencies like the FBI, DEA, ATF, DHS, or IRS. After indictment, cases proceed in U.S. District Courts to arraignment, motion practice, trial or plea, and sentencing in accordance with the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines.

Specialized Federal Courts

The federal court system also includes specialized courts with limited subject-matter jurisdiction. These specialized courts include the following:

• Bankruptcy Courts: These courts operate within each federal district to handle all matters arising under the Bankruptcy Code, including Chapter 7, 11, 12, and 13 bankruptcies.
• U.S. Tax Court: This court hears disputes between taxpayers and the IRS over assessments, deficiencies, and penalties, typically before payment is required.
• Court of International Trade: This court addresses cases involving international trade, customs duties, and import regulations.
• Court of Federal Claims: This court hears monetary claims against the U.S. government, including government contracts, takings claims, and military pay disputes.

Federal Court Dockets and Case Records

Federal court dockets and case records generally provide detailed information about proceedings and the decisions of cases heard in federal courts.

What Federal Court Records Include

Federal court records typically include the following:

• Case Docket: A chronological list of all actions, hearings, and filings in a case.
• Filings and Pleadings: Complaints, answers, responses, and supporting exhibits.
• Motions and Orders: These include motions to dismiss, motions for summary judgment, and court rulings.
• Verdicts and Judgments: These include final decisions issued by judges or juries.
• Criminal Docket Entries: These include indictments, plea agreements, trial outcomes, and sentencing documents.
• Appellate Briefs and Opinions: These contain appellate briefs, oral argument transcripts, and published or unpublished opinions that interpret and apply federal law.

Public vs. Restricted Records

Under the First Amendment and the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), there is a presumption in favor of public access to court proceedings and records. While this means that federal court records are generally publicly accessible, certain exceptions exist. Some records or information are sealed or restricted to ensure that public access does not compromise individual rights or national interests. Examples include the following:

• Juvenile proceedings and records protected under the Federal Juvenile Delinquency Act.
• Grand jury materials, which are confidential under Rule 6(e) of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure.
• National security cases, including classified filings and Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC) matters.
• Pre-sentence reports and other sensitive probation documents.
• Victim and witness information, particularly in sexual offense or terrorism cases.

Also, to protect personal privacy, federal courts also apply redaction rules, making sensitive data, such as Social Security numbers, home addresses, birth dates, and financial account numbers, inaccessible to the public.

How to Access Federal Court Records

Records of federal courts are available to requesters online and offline.

Online Access via PACER

The Public Access to Court Electronic Records (PACER) system is the primary means of accessing federal court records online. It allows users to view case dockets, filings, opinions, and other downloadable documents from district, appellate, and bankruptcy courts.

Users are required to create an account on the portal to use it. After logging in, they can search for cases by party name, case number, and keywords.

Note that PACER charges $0.10 per page but capped at $3 per document. For efficient case lookup, users are advised to use precise case numbers or full party names. Also, they can filter results by court type, date range, and docket type to narrow their search.

Offline Access

Federal court records are also accessible by visiting the clerk's office at any federal courthouse. Typically, requesters will complete a request form at the clerk's office, provide valid identification, and pay the applicable copying or certification fee.

Also, some clerks accept requests submitted by mail. Generally, requests submitted via this method must include appropriate fees and prepaid return postage. In addition, relevant information such as case number, party information, and a specific description of the record needed must be provided in the mail request. It is recommended that you check each court's local rules and fee schedule before submitting a court record request to avoid denial.

Appeals and Judicial Review Process

Appeals in the federal system usually begin in the U.S. District Courts, move to the Courts of Appeals, and, in rare cases, proceed to the U.S. Supreme Court if certiorari is granted.

Appellate review the lower court's record for legal errors using common calibrated standards of review such as:

• De novo for legal questions.
• Clear error for findings of fact made by a judge at a bench trial.
• Abuse of discretion for case management, evidentiary rulings, sanctions, and equitable relief.

In addition, certain context-specific standards exist and may be used depending on the type of issue under review. These include the following:

• Substantial Evidence: This is used for administrative agency appeals or jury verdicts.
• Plain Error: Used when a party did not object during trial but appeals later
• Arbitrary and Capricious: Used in the review of administrative agency decisions under the Administrative Procedure Act (APA).
• Harmless Error: While not strictly a standard of review, it is a limiting doctrine. Here, if the court finds an error occurred, it will affirm if the error was unlikely to have affected the outcome.

Appellate outcomes usually fall into one of the following categories:

• Affirmed: The lower court's decision is upheld
• Reversed: The decision of the lower court is overturned by the appellate court and replaced with the higher court's ruling
• Vacated: The appellate court nullifies or sets aside a lower-court judgment or order, treating it as if it no longer has legal effect.
• Remanded: The appellate court sends the case back to the lower court for further proceedings consistent with the appellate decision.

Decisions from appellate courts create binding precedent within their jurisdiction. Per the principle of vertical stare decisis, a lower court is obligated to follow the legal precedent established by a higher court within the same judicial hierarchy.

On the other hand, horizontal stare decisis promotes circuit self-consistency, requiring a court to follow its own prior decision or the decisions of courts on the same level. Similarly, in accordance with horizontal stare decisis, the U.S. Supreme Court generally follows its past decisions unless it finds a compelling reason to overturn precedent.

Frequently Asked Questions about Federal Courts

The following are frequently asked questions about federal courts.