State Courts

State courts are the backbone of the judicial system in the United States, serving as the primary legal forums where most disputes are filed, heard, and resolved. Unlike federal courts, which deal with cases involving federal statutes, constitutional issues, or interstate disputes, state courts are authorized by state constitutions to interpret and enforce state laws and regulations.

Each state operates its own multi-tiered system, typically including trial, appellate, and supreme courts. Understanding state courts is important for residents, legal professionals, and researchers, as it clarifies how to navigate legal rights, ensures correct case handling and procedural compliance, and provides insight into how laws evolve and are enforced.

Structure of State Court Systems

The structure of state court systems in the United States typically follows a three-tier structure: trial courts, intermediate appellate courts, and supreme courts.

Trial Courts (Courts of First Instance)

State trial courts are the foundation of state judicial systems. They are where most legal disputes begin, evidence is presented, and witnesses are heard, which gives them the label "courts of first instance". Primarily, they determine the facts of a case, apply relevant state laws, and issue judgments or verdicts.

General Jurisdiction vs. Limited Jurisdiction Courts

Generally, trial courts are divided into two main categories: courts of general jurisdiction and courts of limited jurisdiction. General jurisdiction courts often include superior, circuit, and district courts, which handle a wide range of cases, such as serious criminal offenses, major civil disputes, divorce, custody cases, and significant property matters.

On the other hand, limited jurisdiction courts, such as municipal, probate, family, juvenile, and traffic courts, handle lesser issues like misdemeanors, wills, guardianships, minor civil disputes, and traffic violations.

Intermediate Appellate Courts

Intermediate appellate courts operate as a review layer between trial courts and the state's highest court. Their purpose is to review appeals from trial court to ensure that the law was applied correctly and no significant procedural or legal error occurred.

Intermediate appellate courts do not retry facts but review legal rulings, admissibility of evidence, jury instructions, and sentencing issues. If a reversible error is found, they may remand for a new trial or alter the judgment. Examples of intermediate appellate courts include state courts of appeals and appellate divisions.

State Supreme Courts

State supreme courts are each state's highest appellate authority. They serve as the final arbiter of state law, resolving conflicts in the law, interpreting state constitutions, and deciding cases of statewide importance. Supreme courts exercise discretionary review in many states and may hear direct appeals in certain categories, such as death penalty and constitutional challenges.

Although the state supreme court's rulings are final on matters of state law, decisions that raise federal constitutional questions can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. Note that state supreme courts also oversee the administration of the state judiciary and regulate the conduct of judges and attorneys.

Types of Cases Heard in State Courts

The subject-matter jurisdiction of state courts covers a broad range of cases. The following categories represent the principal types of cases adjudicated in state courts.

• Criminal Cases: Criminal cases constitute a significant portion of the workload of state courts. These include serious felonies such as murder or robbery to lesser misdemeanors like petty theft or simple assault, as well as minor violations such as disorderly conduct or trespassing.
• Civil Cases: Civil cases involve disputes between individuals, organizations, or government entities seeking compensation or specific remedies. Common examples include contract disputes, personal injury (tort) claims, landlord-tenant disagreements, and small claims where the contested amount is below a statutory limit.
• Family Law: Family law cases include matters such as divorce, child custody, visitation, child support, paternity, and adoption.
• Probate and Estate Matters: Probate and estate cases include wills, estate administration, trusts, guardianship, and conservatorship proceedings.
• Traffic and Administrative Violations: State courts also adjudicate traffic infractions and administrative appeals involving non-criminal conduct. Typical cases include speeding, reckless driving, and driving under the influence (DUI).

In addition, state courts may review administrative decisions issued by government agencies, such as licensing disputes, employment appeals, or zoning determinations, ensuring that public entities act within their legal authority.

Dockets and Court Records

Dockets and court records help judicial systems remain accountable to the public and also track legal actions and processes. However, not all court records are open for public inspection and copying.

State court records provide detailed accounts of how cases progress through the judicial systems at the state level. Typically, these records include

• Case filings,
• Pleadings,
• Motions,
• Court orders,
• Judgments, and
• Sentencing information, documenting all the actions taken by the court and involved parties.

State court records are generally organized within court dockets. A court docket lists proceedings in chronological order for easy tracking. However, not all information in a docket is accessible to the public. Open docket information is available to the public, while restricted dockets contain materials or information withheld for privacy, security, or legal reasons, such as sealed filings or sensitive exhibits.

Public vs. Sealed Records

Access to state court records is generally guided by state open records laws, which uphold the public' right to review judicial proceedings. Hence, in most states, the open-records and court-access laws typically make court proceedings and records public to promote transparency, subject to statutory exceptions.

Note that state courts may seal or restrict entire cases or specific records for privacy or safety. Examples of records or cases that may be restricted from public access are those related to

• Juvenile proceedings,
• Adoption files,
• Mental-health commitments, and
• Some protective-order matters.

Additionally, when records remain public but contain sensitive data, courts follow redaction rules to remove Social Security numbers, financial account details, and other personally identifying information before release.

Accessing State Court Records

State court records are typically available to requesters in various ways that may be categorized into online and offline methods.

Online Access

Most state courts provide online access to case information through official judicial portals or electronic case search systems. These platforms allow users to look up cases by name, case number, or filing date and view dockets, judgments, and hearing schedules. Examples include the California Courts Case Information System, New York's eCourts portal, and the Florida Courts E-Filing Portal. In addition, some states, such as Maryland and Washington, offer specialized searchable online databases for appellate opinions and traffic citations.

Also, public record aggregator platforms such as Court Case Finder also compile public court data from multiple states, making it easier to search state court records across jurisdictions.

Offline Access

For certified or older documents not available online, individuals can request records in person at the clerk of court's office where the case was filed. This process usually requires valid identification, completion of a request form, and payment of a small fee for copies or certification.

Some state courts also accept mail-in or telephone requests, provided the requester provides sufficient case details and pays any applicable postage and processing costs.

Key Differences Among States

Although state courts in the United States generally share a three-tier structure and general court functions, the organization within the structure and court-naming conventions vary. For instance, states like Florida and Missouri use the circuit court naming convention, California and Arizona use superior courts, while the district court naming convention is used in Texas and Minnesota.

Furthermore, states maintain distinct appellate structures and specialized divisions tailored to local needs. Some have intermediate appellate courts, while others send appeals directly to the state supreme court. In addition, some state judicial systems, such as those of New York, Ohio, and Minnesota, create specialized divisions or courts for tax, family, juvenile, or probate matters to handle particular case types with focused expertise.

Note that case management systems and public-record access laws differ by jurisdiction. While some states provide online portals with searchable dockets and downloadable filings, others restrict digital access or require in-person requests.

State Appellate Structures and Specialized Court Divisions

Many states in the United States operate specialized or problem-solving courts established to address the underlying causes of criminal behavior and reduce recidivism. Eligibility criteria for problem-solving courts vary by state. However, they generally include the exclusion of violent offenders. Individuals may enter through referral by judges, prosecutors, defense attorneys, or probation officers, usually as an alternative to traditional sentencing.

Frequently Asked Questions about State Courts

The following are frequently asked questions about state courts in the United States.