Supreme Courts

The Supreme Court features in both federal and state judicial systems. At the federal level, the U.S. Supreme Court interprets federal law and the U.S. Constitution, while each state's supreme court has final authority over state law. In both systems, the Supreme Court serves as the court of last resort, with its decisions binding and final.

Supreme courts play an important role as the final arbiters of legal disputes and protectors of constitutional rights. In this role, they safeguard individual rights, check legislative and executive actions, and ensure legal uniformity and stability across the jurisdictions they oversee.

The Role and Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court

Understanding the jurisdiction and the types of cases heard in Supreme Courts is critical to grasping how justice is administered at the highest judicial level.

Federal vs. State Supreme Courts

The U.S. judicial system operates a dual structure that distinguishes between the U.S. Supreme Court and state supreme courts, each serving as the highest authority in its respective system.

The U.S. Supreme Court resolves disputes involving the Constitution, federal statutes, treaties, and conflicts between lower federal courts or between a state and the federal government. State supreme courts are the final arbiters of their state constitutions and statutes, setting binding precedent for state trial and appellate courts.

However, note that if a case involves a federal constitutional question, it may be appealed from a state supreme court to the U.S. Supreme Court if the case raises a significant federal question.

Types of Cases Heard

Supreme Courts, particularly at the federal level, have discretionary jurisdiction, meaning they can choose which cases to review. Typically, matters reach the U.S. Supreme Court through petitions for writs of certiorari, which the Court grants only in a few instances, such as when a matter has broad legal or constitutional significance.

Typical cases heard in the court include the following:

• Constitutional challenges
• High-profile criminal appeals
• Civil rights disputes
• Separation-of-power issues
• Interpretations of federal or state statutes

Additionally, depending on the jurisdiction, state supreme courts may hear direct appeals in death penalty cases or significant election disputes.

The decisions issued by supreme courts carry substantial weight, forming binding legal precedent under the doctrine of stare decisis. Stare decisis compels courts to follow established rulings, promoting consistency, stability, and predictability within the legal system.

Structure and Composition

While both the U.S. Supreme Court and state supreme courts serve as final arbiters within their respective systems, their makeup, selection processes, and responsibilities can differ significantly.

U.S. Supreme Court Structure

The U.S. Supreme Court comprises nine justices: one chief justice and eight associate justices. These justices are appointed for lifetime tenures; hence, they serve until they retire, resign, pass away, or are impeached. The Chief Justice presides over oral arguments, leads the discussion of cases among the Justices, and assigns opinion-writing duties when in the majority.

Justices in the U.S. Supreme Court are selected through a two-step process: the President nominates a candidate, and the U.S. Senate confirms the appointment by majority vote. After, confirmed nominees receive commissions and join the court.

In deciding cases in the U.S. Supreme Court, each justice casts one vote. The court issues a majority opinion, which becomes binding precedent, but may also produce concurring opinions (agreeing with the outcome but for different reasons) or dissenting opinions (expressing disagreement with the majority).

State Supreme Court Organization

State supreme courts typically consist of between 5 and 9 justices. Unlike the uniform structure of the federal court, state supreme courts vary in how justices are selected and how long they serve.

To balance democratic accountability, independence, and professional vetting, some governors appoint justices (often with legislative or commission input), others hold partisan or nonpartisan elections, and many use merit selection (a nominating commission followed by retention elections).

Terms of office for state supreme courts also vary, with some state justices serving fixed terms with re-election or retention cycles, while others have life or long tenures subject to mandatory retirement ages.

In addition to deciding cases, many state supreme courts hold administrative responsibilities over the judicial branch, such as setting procedural rules, overseeing lower courts, and managing judicial discipline and training.

State Supreme Court Comparison Table

Supreme Court Public and Restricted Records

Federal access to Supreme Court documents is governed by the Freedom of Information Act, court rules, and internal Judiciary policies and procedures. These allow for broad public access to filings, opinions, and dockets. However, not all documents are publicly available, with certain deliberations and internal communications remaining confidential.

Per access to court records, state supreme courts operate under their respective open records or transparency laws, which vary significantly. Some state supreme courts publish comprehensive online dockets and opinions, while others limit access or require formal requests.

Regardless of jurisdiction, courts seal records in sensitive matters, including those related to:

• Juvenile proceedings
• Grand jury materials
• Ongoing criminal investigations
• Classified national security cases
• Documents protected by privilege or privacy interests

How to Access Supreme Court Records

Whether at the state or federal level, access to Supreme Court records is usually available online and offline.

Online Access

Records of the U.S. Supreme Court can be accessed online via the following methods:

• Federal Court Website: The U.S. Supreme Court website offers online access to some opinions, docket information, oral argument audio, and transcripts of the court.
• PACER: Requesters may use the Public Access to Court Electronic Records (PACER) system to access records of U.S. Supreme Court matters arising from federal cases. PACER offers access to the complaints, motions, orders, and judgments filed in the federal district and circuit courts.
• State Portals: Many state supreme courts typically operate their own judiciary portal or electronic filing system. Generally, users can search dockets, view decisions, and download filings via these portals.
• Court Case Finder: Public record aggregator platforms such as Court Case Finder (CCF) compile publicly available records of the Supreme Court. CCF offers access to court records from multiple jurisdictions, saving requesters from visiting several courthouses for multiple searches.

Offline Access

Court records that are not available online and those requiring certification can be requested in person at the Supreme Court's clerk's office or the state equivalent. Note that requesters may need to complete request forms, provide valid identification, and pay copy or certification fees.

To obtain official court records by mail, such as certified judgments or full case transcripts, users must submit a written request to the appropriate clerk's office, following that court's specific mailing instructions and fee schedule.

Key Functions and Judicial Review

One of the most sovereign functions of the Supreme Court is judicial review, established in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison (1803). This doctrine gives courts the authority to declare legislative and executive acts unconstitutional, making the judiciary a co-equal branch that enforces constitutional limits.

The U.S. Supreme Court exercises this power to interpret the Constitution's text and principles, resolving disputes over federal power, individual rights, and the separation of powers. The rulings of this court can invalidate statutes or executive actions that exceed constitutional bounds.

State supreme courts perform a similar role within their jurisdictions, serving as the final interpreters of state constitutions and laws. When state rulings implicate federal constitutional questions, the U.S. Supreme Court may review them, thereby preserving the balance between state autonomy and national constitutional uniformity.

Notable Supreme Court Decisions

The U.S. Supreme Court has issued several landmark rulings that reshaped American society. For example, in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the Court declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional. Similarly, Roe v. Wade (1973) recognized a constitutional right to abortion, which sparked decades of legal and political debate. However, this precedent was later overturned in Dobbs v. Jackson (2022). Furthermore, Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) legalized same-sex marriage nationwide, affirming equal protection for LGBTQ+ couples under the Fourteenth Amendment.

At the state level, decisions such as California's People v. Anderson (1972) abolished the death penalty temporarily, while New Jersey's Robinson v. Cahill (1973) forced major education funding reforms. Some state rulings have even influenced national debates or prompted federal judicial review.

When an earlier decision no longer aligns with constitutional interpretations or current social conditions, courts may revise or overturn it. Such changes usually mark a new direction in the law and influence broader political and social developments.

FAQs About Supreme Courts in the U.S.

The following are frequently asked questions about supreme courts in the United States.